Jill Lepore

The extent to which artificial intelligence will shape governance and social dynamics remains an unsettled question. While the AI revolution has promised a new world defined by faster performance and fewer errors of the kind associated with human involvement, it has also sparked an ongoing debate over its potential consequences. Perhaps the most significant unresolved question is whether artificial intelligence can ever completely replace humans. This question has gained particular significance amid discussions by some writers about the possible emergence of a so-called "useless class," referring to groups of people who may lose their economic relevance in the labor market as the use of artificial intelligence and automation expands.Against this backdrop, the recent book by American historian Jill Lepore, The Rise and Fall of the Artificial State, takes on particular importance. A distinguished scholar, Lepore is the David Woods Kemper ’41 Professor of American History at Harvard University and Professor of Law at Harvard Law School. In the book, she warns against the unprecedented and excessive reliance of individuals and governments on AI systems and technologies, arguing that in some cases, this could end up sidelining the human element. Lepore explicitly rejects the idea of AI-driven alternatives to established liberal democracy. She seeks to deconstruct what she describes as the phenomenon of "machine rule over the world" and asks whether today’s extraordinary technological boom will continue indefinitely or whether it may soon begin to decline and gradually collapse as democracy is eroded under the influence of modern technology.To explore this question, Lepore ranges widely—from debates over robot rights and the fascination that prominent business figures in Silicon Valley have with the latest AI technologies to the rapid expansion of data centers and their impact on wildlife. Throughout the book, she also seeks to connect the past with the future, attempting to anticipate the trajectory of what she calls the "Artificial State," a form of government increasingly reliant on artificial intelligence.Key FeaturesThe book identifies several key features associated with the expanding use of artificial intelligence and the emergence of the so-called Artificial State:1. The Complex Relationship Between Artificial Intelligence and Humans: Lepore acknowledges that many major transformations throughout history have unfolded rapidly and with little restraint, but she argues that the transformation driven by artificial intelligence appears particularly reckless. In her view, the relationship between humans and machines has undergone a fundamental shift, with AI moving from being merely a tool that supports human beings to becoming an increasingly influential force in their lives and decisions. She places this development within the framework of what she calls the Artificial State.Lepore draws in part on the ideas of German-American philosopher and political theorist Hannah Arendt, particularly her work The Origins of Totalitarianism, in which Arendt argued that the mechanisms of modern life were reshaping the foundations of human existence. From this perspective, the notion of "machine rule" could become a political nightmare.2. The Problem of Mechanical Philosophy and Technological Determinism: According to Lepore, the Artificial State rests on two underlying ideas. The first is mechanical philosophy, the notion that everything—the natural world and the universe as a whole—can be understood as a machine operating according to discoverable laws and rules that can be quantified, calculated, and predicted.The second is technological determinism, or the belief that machines determine the course of history and represent an inevitable march toward progress. Lepore argues that invoking these ideas creates a major problem because it largely overlooks the continuing importance of human agency.3. Reducing Political Campaigns to Algorithms: The book argues that people have spent the past century living in a data-driven age in which technological development has extended into virtually every aspect of society. What Lepore finds particularly troubling, however, is that these technologies are now developing faster than humans are able to regulate or restrain them.She points to changes in political campaigning, which has become increasingly dependent on algorithms designed to capture attention, while multinational corporations have acquired growing influence over public discourse and the shaping of global public opinion. This leads Lepore to warn that the era of the liberal nation-state may be approaching its end, potentially giving way to a form of AI governance.4. Growing Use of Artificial Intelligence in Disinformation Campaigns: The book identifies what it sees as a direct relationship between greater reliance on artificial intelligence and the significant expansion of disinformation. In Lepore’s view, claims such as "machines know what humans cannot know" and "machines can accomplish what humans cannot" are unrealistic propositions touted by the individuals, media organizations, and tech companies behind the Artificial State.According to the book, such ideas are used to encourage deeper dependence on AI tools and technologies across nearly every aspect of life, including medical advice and everyday decision-making.5. Warning Against a "Digital Citizens’ Assembly": In warning about technology’s potential to undermine democracy, Lepore adopts an approach that at times recalls George Orwell’s 1984. She argues that technology has weakened the basic foundations of human society and its capacity for self-government, while simultaneously creating a new form of AI government resembling what might be described as a "digital citizens’ assembly."Within such a system, artificial intelligence would assume an increasingly prominent role in directing human activity, potentially displacing traditional human legislative bodies.6. Science Fiction Replacing Science Among the "Architects of the Artificial State": The book stresses that history is not driven by machines, but by individuals, societies, cultures, and ideas. Lepore illustrates this by referring to the "architects of the Artificial State," a term she uses broadly for technological elites and figures whose ideas and projects have contributed to the emergence of what she describes as the Artificial State, particularly leaders in Silicon Valley.According to Lepore, these figures lack a genuine theory of governance and have shown little interest in the rule of law or in establishing rigorous professional and ethical standards before expanding reliance on artificial intelligence. She attributes this, in part, to the fact that their thinking has often been shaped less by science than by science fiction. She therefore argues that it is essential to examine the origins of the Artificial State if humanity is to respond collectively to the challenges it poses.A Complex FutureIn the second part of the book, Lepore focuses on the striking duality contained in its title—"rise and fall"—to consider the possible trajectory of the Artificial State in the coming period.1. Continued Calls for Vigilance Against Disinformation: Lepore’s book calls for vigilance and a renewed emphasis on the human element in response to the growing scale of disinformation, particularly content generated and amplified through fake accounts across social media platforms. She argues that the Artificial State is not inevitable and that it remains possible to change its trajectory and develop solutions to the challenges it creates.2. Eventual Limits on the Artificial State’s Rise: Although the book acknowledges that AI companies and major business figures are generating enormous profits from growing reliance on the Artificial State, it also predicts that there will be a ceiling to this unprecedented rise.Lepore suggests that there may eventually be a rise followed by decline, collapse, and a return to earlier principles. According to the book, the Artificial State does not offer a sufficiently meaningful contribution to guarantee its long-term sustainability. Where traditional religious states once invoked the "divine right" of rulers, the new order may instead resemble a form of "divine rule by machines," built on claims that machines know what humans cannot.Yet Lepore argues that even if disinformation succeeds in reshaping global public opinion, its impact is likely to remain temporary.In this context, she references right-wing programmer Curtis Yarvin, who has long promoted the idea of "technological monarchy" as a form of national salvation. Lepore nevertheless anticipates the decline and eventual fall of the Artificial State for several reasons, foremost among them what she sees as the limited intellectual capacities of some of the major business figures behind AI companies. This leads to her broader argument that Silicon Valley billionaires "understand only half of what they’re doing." For Lepore, this limitation is a reassuring factor that could accelerate the transition from rise to decline and eventual collapse.3. Future Backlash Against Its Impact on Wildlife: Beyond its warnings about the effect of the Artificial State on human beings—including Silicon Valley’s marginalization of the humanities in the age of data—the book also explicitly warns about the potential consequences of AI for wildlife.Lepore cites the replacement of animals with machines on the grounds that "robots can do the same thing" as an example of this tendency. In her view, such a trajectory is unlikely to remain sustainable indefinitely because it would logically imply applying the same principle to humans—pushing people aside and replacing them with machines.She further argues that continued machine substitution is neither inevitable nor without limits, given the environmental and material constraints on technological expansion, as well as growing public opposition to some of its manifestations, particularly the rapid construction of data centers.4. Growing Campaigns to "Humanize Artificial Intelligence": The book assumes that the far-reaching effects associated with artificial intelligence will lead to growing calls for the "humanization of AI." The underlying principle is that machines should not be allowed to control humans; rather, humans should retain full control over machines, even in the most advanced technological systems.According to Lepore, this would preserve a necessary balance between living beings and machines and would help prevent what she describes as machine domination over humans.In conclusion, Jill Lepore’s book can be viewed as part of a broader debate between two competing schools of thought. One advocates the unrestricted expansion of artificial intelligence because of the many benefits it may bring. The other argues for placing limits on AI use. Lepore’s argument belongs to the latter camp, which assumes that unchecked artificial intelligence could produce far-reaching disruptions, particularly by expanding the role of machines at the expense of humans. From this perspective, one central question remains unavoidable: can artificial intelligence ultimately replace human beings?

The Rise and Decline of the "Artificial State" Around the World